Journal Entry 8

Description:  The topic of study this week in EDAT 6115 was “Assessing Student Learning” (Slavin, 2015). We looked at instructional objectives, the importance of evaluation, various types of evaluation, test questions, and methods for grading. The focus was on using this information to increase the effectiveness of teachers’ lessons and to increase learning for students.

Analysis:  There is no way to understand where a student in his/her acquisition of knowledge without assessment. Teachers must use some type of assessment in order to gauge a student’s growth as well as the effectiveness of his/her teaching. Assessments come in many forms and can be formal or informal.

Instructional objectives are “statements of skills or concepts that students are expected to know at the end of some period of instruction” (Slavin, 2015).  They must match the assessments that will be given as well as aligned to state standards. Instructional objectives should be both clear and measurable. They contain three main components: performance, conditions, and criteria. The performance component specifies what the learner is expected to do. The objective describes the conditions under which the student will perform. The criterion defines the performance level required to meet the objective. Teachers plan their lessons around instructional objectives so that students will meet the objectives.

Backwards planning is one way that teachers can write objectives to ensure that all standards are being covered. Teachers first write broad, long term objectives; they then break down those objectives into smaller, more specific objectives. When writing objectives, teachers should be aware of the verbiage used. Different skills, levels of understanding, and purposes should also be taken into consideration. One way this can be accomplished is through the use of a taxonomy, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge. These taxonomies “[categorize] tasks according to the complexity of thinking required to successfully complete them” (Aungst, 2014). It is imperative that teachers plan instructional objectives in advance as they communicate to students what they will be expected to do; therefore, the objectives must be accurate, and teachers must be fully prepared to instruct students towards mastery of the objectives.

Evaluations are valuable aspects of teaching and learning. Waugh and Gronlund (2013) as cited by Slavin (2015) list six key purposes of evaluations:

1.      “Feedback to students

2.      Feedback to teachers

3.      Information to parents

4.      Information for selection and certification

5.      Information for accountability

6.      Incentives to increase student effort”

Feedback is a necessary part of education, and it is imperative that it be timely. Teachers and students “need to know as soon as possible whether their investments of time and energy in a given activity are paying off in increased learning” (Slavin, 2015). When students are provided specific feedback on their strengths and weaknesses, they are more likely to increase their efforts towards success. Teachers require feedback in order to analyze the effectiveness of their instruction. Using feedback, teachers can adjust their teaching by incorporating different strategies or, perhaps, slowing down a bit, and thereby, increasing student engagement and learning.

Evaluation provides valuable information to many involved in education. Parents are able to stay up to date on their student’s academic progress or lack thereof. Parents can use this information to reinforce student attendance, study habits, and requesting additional help when needed. Evaluation results are used in the selection of students for particular programs such as gifted services, special education services, or program of study tracks. In addition, these results can be used to provide certification from a program of study or access to a particular program of study. Accountability is a major factor in education. States use evaluation results to make decisions regarding teachers’, administrations’, and districts’ effectiveness in educating students. Lastly, according to the list of evaluations’ purposes is that of providing information for incentives. Results, also referred to as grades, provides a means of motivating students to perform to the best of their abilities. Often, awards and prizes are given to students performing well or exhibiting growth as revealed by their evaluation results. Long term incentives, such as getting into preferred colleges, the military, or work-based learning programs are of value to students as well.

Various types of evaluations are in use by teachers and districts to reveal information regarding student learning and teacher instruction. The major categories are formative and summative assessments and norm and criterion referenced assessments. Each of these assessments are used for particular purposes. Formative assessments are basically used to see how students are doing within a unit of study. Teachers use this data to adjust his/her instruction or to provide additional instruction to students requiring intervention. Summative assessments are primarily used to determine how well students did at the end of a particular unit of study. The data is used to make comparisons between students. Norm referenced and criterion referenced assessments are differentiated based on the interpretation of student scores. Norm referenced assessments focus primarily on comparing student scores across a district, state, or the nation. Criterion referenced assessments focus primarily on “students’ mastery of specific skills, regardless of how other students did on the same skills” (Slavin, 2015). To make a connection between these types of assessments, Slavin (2015) states that “formative evaluation is almost always norm referenced [while] summative testing…can be either criterion referenced or norm referenced.” The difference simply lies in the use of the scores.

Some teachers use alternative forms of assessment that are different from the traditional paper and pencil tests. Portfolio and performance assessments allow students to show what they know “through work samples or direct real-world applications” (Slavin, 2015). Performance assessments require students to apply the concepts and knowledge that they have learned and utilize higher level thinking skills (Hilliard, 2015). Some might argue that these types of assessments are more indicative of a student’s learning than traditional assessments.

Methods of grading are quite different depending upon the grade level being taught. In early elementary, some districts use standards based grading with meets, progressing, or not demonstrating as the “grade” given. As students progress through grades, they begin earning numerical grades or letter grades. In order to determine a grade that will be placed on report cards, teachers average scores earned on assignments and assessments. Generally, assignments and assessments are weighted differently.  The calculated grades are reported on report cards or progress reports that are provided to parents.

Reflection: It would be a difficult task to determine how students are progressing through the curriculum without evaluations. When I taught kindergarten, many of the assessments that I performed were informal and based on observations and student performance. As a ninth grade Biology teacher, I will approach assessment in a somewhat different manner. I found the explanations of different types of evaluations in our text to be very useful to me. As a matter of fact, I will be working for the next three days with the Biology department to revamp our assessments in order to increase the rigor. This is being done to better prepare our students for the Milestones EOC. I will be able to use the information from this week’s reading as I work with my colleagues this week. Understanding how assessments should be written will help me prepare more effective assessments that will provide an accurate picture of student achievement.

References:

Aungst, G. (2014). Using Webb's depth of knowledge to increase rigor. Retrieved from:

     http://www.edutopia.org/blog/webbs-depth-knowledge-increase-rigor-gerald-aungst

Hilliard, P. (2015). Performance-based assessment: Reviewing the basics. Retrieved from:

     http://www.edutopia.org/blog/performance-based-assessment-reviewing-basics-patricia

     hilliard

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Boston, MA: Pearson

     Education.

Journal Entry 7

Description:  The focus of our reading this week in EDAT 6115 was effective learning environments.  We looked into what an effective learning environment encompasses.  Teachers plan and employ various strategies to maintain an environment where learning is maximized for all students.  Managing time and behavior are two important aspects of creating an effective learning environment.  We discovered strategies that can be used to manage behavior without jeopardizing learning in the classroom.

Analysis:  According to Slavin (2015), the major characteristics of an effective learning environment include "preventing and responding to misbehavior..., using class time well, creating an atmosphere that is conducive to interest and inquiry, and permitting activities that engage students' minds and imaginations."  Horner, Sugai, and Dickey (n.d.) list 12 practices for creating an effective classroom:

1. Expectations: Invest in appropriate behavior
2. Establish, teach & maintain routines: Build a predictable environment
3. Engage in active supervision.
4. Establish a positive environment.
5. Design a functional physical layout for the classroom.
6. Maximize academic engagement time.
7. Promote academic success: Match curriculum to student skills
8. Instruction influences behavior
9. Establish an effective hierarchy of consequences for problem behavior.
10. Vary modes of instruction.
11. Teacher has system to request assistance
12. Role of school-wide behavior teams (PBIS Teams): Teams (PBIS Teams): Ensure teachers have a plan

Teachers should begin the year by explaining classroom rules and procedures explicitly (Horner et al., n.d.).  Expectations should be made clear to the students, and teachers should establish an atmosphere of care and support (Slavin, 2015).  Teachers need to review rules and procedures often during the beginning of the year and when new situations arise.  Consistent and immediate responses to misbehavior will send the message that such behavior is not welcome nor will it be tolerated.  By doing this early on, classroom management should be much more effective.

Establishing and setting classroom rules are tasks that should not be taken lightly.  In addition to following the school rules, individual classes will have specific rules that students will adhere to.  Rules and procedures are in place to prevent misbehavior and to ensure the safety of students; however, teachers must also have a set of strategies that will be used to address problems as they arise.

The time that students spend on task and engaged contribute the most to student learning (Slavin, 2015).  It is imperative that teachers work to reduce situations which rob students of learning.  Some examples of events that take time from learning include, but certainly are not limited to, tardies, sharpening pencils, leaving class to go to the restroom, playing/socializing, gathering materials, and transitions.  There are strategies that can be put in place to prevent time lost due to events such as these.  Teachers should begin class on time each day and teach until the end of class.  This practice relays the message to the students that class time is valuable and used for learning.  Some interruptions are unavoidable, but it is important that teachers plan to avoid interruptions.  This can be accomplished by establishing early on the rules and procedures for the class.  Students will need to be reminded and modeled for in order for the rules and procedures to become habit, therefore, it is important that teachers maintain consistency with this process.  Another method that increases time spent learning is a rapid pace of instruction.  Teachers should plan for smooth transitions and reduce down time by being organized and having all materials in place prior to class.  Employing these strategies should reduce the amount of time that the teacher must spend on discipline. 

Maximizing engaged time can be accomplished by teaching lessons that are interesting.  Another way to increase engaged learning time is to reduce the amount of independent seatwork that students are required to do.  Instead, use direct teaching, cooperative learning groups, and encourage active participation in lessons by making lessons interactive in nature.  Additionally, it is important that transitions be managed.  This is an area where a great amount of time can be wasted if the procedures have not been explicitly outlined for the students.  Keeping the group focused on the lesson is another way to ensure that time is used wisely.  A way to do this is to use all student responses.  Students can answer chorally, use whiteboards, answer using CPS clickers, response cards, or strategies such as turn and talk.  Another way to ensure that all students are focused on the lesson is to ask the question prior to calling on a student to answer.  This strategy has all students paying attention to the question not knowing who will be called on.  When seatwork is used, it is an effective strategy for teachers to circulate and monitor students.  This gives students the opportunity to ask for help and reminds them that the teacher is monitoring them.  Effective classroom managers are able to redirect behavior without losing instruction time.  This can be done by giving nonverbal cues, standing near particular students, or simply walking by and pointing to the student's paper or task.

When employing strategies and interventions for misbehavior, it is best practice to use the simplest intervention to address the misbehavior (Slavin, 2015).  The following chart describes the progression of intervention uses.

Principle of Least Intervention
Step	Procedure	Example
1	Prevention	Teacher displays enthusiasm, varies activities, keeps students interested.
2	Nonverbal cues	Tanya turns in paper late; teacher frowns.
3	Praise of correct behavior that is incompatible with misbehavior	“Tanya, I hear you completed your science fair project on time for the judging. That’s great!”
4	Praise for other students	“I see most of you turned your papers in on time today. I really appreciate that.”
5	Verbal reminders	“Tanya, please turn in your next paper on time.”
6	Repeated reminders	“Tanya, it’s important that you turn your paper in on time.”
7	Consequences	Tanya spends 10 minutes after class starting on the next paper assignment.

Slavin, 2015

Applied behavior analysis is used to analyze the misbehaviors in the classroom that are not improved through the use of preventative measures.  The analysis reveals the function of the behavior and what the reinforcer may be.  Functions and reinforcers include gaining attention, either the teacher's or peer's attention or the release or avoidance of an unpreferred activity or situation.  Once the teacher identifies the reinforcers that are contributing to misbehavior, they are able to determine replacement reinforcers or punishers, if necessary.  Once the behavior has improved, the frequency of the reinforcers can be reduced resulting in long term maintenance of the new behaviors and generalization across settings (Slavin, 2015).

Serious behavior problems can be addressed through several methods.  First, teachers strive to prevent misbehavior through the use of establishing an effective learning environment and applying preventative strategies.  Teachers also observe students and communicate with them to determine the root of the misbehavior.  Once this is established, teachers can employ strategies to correct the misbehavior.  Establishing clear expectations and consistently enforcing rules and procedures will help the class run more effectively, thus reducing the instances of misbehavior.  Increasing the attendance of students will also reduce the amount of misbehavior.  Students who are at school are less likely to be out and about getting into trouble (Slavin, 2015).  Additionally, enlisting the help of parents/guardians will create a united front and increase the likelihood that trouble behaviors will be eliminated. 

Reflection:  I always thought that I created an effective learning environment; however, the reading this week has me questioning my effectiveness.   I studied many behavior interventions and strategies as well as applied behavior analysis in my special education course work for my bachelor's degree.  This information helped me manage classroom behavior fairly effectively, however, an area that I feel I struggle with is engaged time and time on task for students.  This is an area that I can address by employing strategies learned in this course as well as increasing the effectiveness of my planning.  Reducing down time and having all materials gathered in advance will help maintain group focus as I teach, monitor, and observe my students.  According to Slavin (2015), setting expectations, rules, and procedures early on will increase the effectiveness of the learning environment.

References:

Horner, R., Sugai, G., & Dickey, C. (n.d.). 12 Steps to Building Effective Classroom
     Management. Retrieved from http://et.nwresd.org/node/135

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Boston, MA:
     Pearson Education.

Journal Entry 6

Description:  Our reading in EDAT 6115 this week focused on diverse student needs in regards to grouping and differentiating instruction to meet their needs. In addition, our text revealed programs that could be used to address the needs of at-risk students.  Finally, the effective use of technology in academics was explored giving readers insight into how various types of technology and programs can be used to enhance instruction.

Analysis:  In a single classroom of 25 students, one can easily have 25 different learning needs.  How do teachers group students in the most effective manner, taking into consideration their unique learning needs?  There are two basic forms used to group students for instruction: between-class ability grouping and within-class ability grouping. 

• Between-class ability grouping is most common in middle, junior, and high school (Slavin, 2015).  This form of grouping encompasses students taking leveled courses according to their needs.  A student may be in an upper level reading class and in a lower level math class.  These courses are assigned to students based on their learning requirements, and they are then grouped as such.  Research on between-class ability grouping revealed that there are small benefits for this type of grouping for upper level students, but for those performing at lower levels, there seems to be a “stigmatizing effect” (Slavin, 2015) of always being in the “slow” classes.  These students generally get the message that academic success is out of their reach (Oakes, 2005 as cited in Slavin, 2015).

• Within-class ability grouping often takes place in elementary schools, but could be used in the upper grades, as well.  This type of grouping is used to place students in cooperative learning groups of small teacher-led groups according to their reading level, math achievement, or writing needs.  These students stay in the same classroom for their instruction, but they are placed in groups according to their specific needs.  Research has shown in elementary settings that within-class ability grouping is beneficial to all ability levels.  The benefits include increased direct instruction from the teacher in the smaller groups and the reduction in the amount of independent seat work (Slavin, 2015).  Slavin (2015) points out that although research shows that there are benefits to within-class ability grouping, this should not be taken as it being a desirable approach to instruction; it is simply the lesser of the two evils, so to speak. 

Differentiated instruction entails “teaching that adapts the content, level, pace, and products of instruction to accommodate the different needs of diverse students in regular classes” (Slavin, 2015).  O’Brien & Guiney (2001, as cited in Logan, 2011) “clearly enumerated these as major principles of differentiated instruction: 1) Every child can learn and every teacher can learn 2) All children have the right to high quality education. 3) Progress for all will be expected, recognized, and rewarded. 4) Learners in a classroom have common needs, distinct needs, and individual needs.”  All students are expected to meet the same standards within the curriculum; however, many students possess barriers that hinder their ability to access the material as easily as others.  In differentiated instruction, teachers employ strategies to level the playing field for students requiring additional support.  Langa and Yost (2007, as cited in Logan, 2011) provide suggestions for adjusting the content, process, and products of instruction:

• Content
• select text on varied reading levels and interests
• group students according to reading level or interests
• reteach material in small groups or individually
• establish learning stations
• allow peer tutoring
• Process
• use scaffolded activities
• allow independent study
• use choice boards, cooperative learning, and/or flexible groups
• Product
• provide choices based on interests
• allow group projects
• provide timeline for turning in project in stages
• provide checklists and/or rubrics
• display examples of exemplar work

Programs available to at-risk students are widely available in schools and communities.  Examples include, but are certainly not limited to: Title I programs, early intervention programs, and after school and summer programs (Slavin, 2015).  Title I provides federal money to school to implement programs for at-risk students.  Examples of Title I programs are Head Start, migrant education, and summer programs.  Early intervention programs use various learning programs geared towards remediating students in order to prevent retention or widening of learning gaps.  There are numerous after school and summer programs available to students to help students who are behind academically.  After school programs provide homework help and additional academic support.  Summer programs, such as summer school, help prevent the loss of skills over the summer due to extended practice and instruction during the summer months.

Students are technology wizzes these days.  They are attracted to anything electronic; therefore, it would seem wise to incorporate what they love into instruction.  There are numerous ways this can be achieved even when resources are scarce.  Most students have some type of cell phone, tablet, or other wireless device.  Many schools now participate in BYOT (bring your own technology) to school.  This can be a distraction, for sure; however, if teachers play their cards right, they can use this as an advantage.  There are apps that teachers can use to check for student understanding; students simply login to the app and post answers to the questions.  Teachers can also provide study guides, videos, and interactive study materials that students can access 24/7.  In addition to cell phones, tablets, etc., teachers use computers, interactive white boards, and electronic response devices (CPS clickers).  Students can use technology to create projects and assignments.  Teachers can also use technology to track student data and determine appropriate interventions.  Some schools are migrating to online learning as most colleges are currently doing.  Students can access material, take assessments, and complete assignments while also collaborating with other students using programs such as D2L.

Reflection:  Students are very diverse learners.  It is up to teachers to determine how best to address and meet student needs in the classroom.  Grouping students according to their ability level certainly has advantages; however, it is imperative that teachers be careful not to label the same five students as the red birds and the same five students as the buzzards.  In my experience, it is helpful to have flexible groups and push students to high standards of performance. 

Differentiated instruction is something that tends to come natural to most teachers.  We often differentiate without even realizing that we are doing so.  Providing choices and taking student interests into account are ways to make effective decisions regarding adjusting instruction for diverse learners.  It is important to remember that differentiated instruction is not just for at-risk students; higher level students require differentiation as well.

In my school system, we have numerous programs available to at-risk students.  Some of the favored include the Boys and Girls Club, the YMCA’s after school program, migrant education, and summer school.  These programs are extremely beneficial not only for students’ academic progress, but also their social and emotional well-being.  Mentoring programs through the YMCA are also utilized in our system.  The mentors are invaluable for increasing student motivation and self-efficacy. 

Technology in instruction is great fun for me.  I have been to several workshops and conferences this summer that have provided me with new and fun ways to engage my students through the use of technology.  I believe that we must teach the way students learn, and if using cell phones and tablets in class to increase engagement and motivation will work, I am all in.

References: 

Logan, B. (2011).  Examining differentiated instruction: Teachers respond.  Research in  

     Higher Education Journal, 1-14.  Retrieved from:

     http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1068803.pdf

Slavin, R. E. (2015).  Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice.  Boston, MA: Pearson

     Education.

Journal Entry 5

Description:  The focus this week in EDAT 6115 was on student-centered learning and constructivist methods as they apply to learning.  In order for students to learn material and content for the long term, it is important that they are involved in their learning.  Rather than sitting through lectures where teachers basically talk to students, students in student-centered learning environments are involved in and engaged in their learning.  This idea of learning methods come from constructivist theories that draw from the work of Piaget and Vygotsky.

Analysis:  Constructivist methods of teaching places heavy emphasis on student interaction.  The reason behind this lies in the way students learn from one another.  They can talk through concepts and problems in a manner that they understand.  There are several components of the constructivist methods that are used in class rooms for student learning.  Discovery learning involves students learning "through active involvement with concepts and principles [with] teachers [encouraging] students to have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to discover principles for themselves" (Slavin, 2015).  In order to maximize on task work time, teachers should guide students in this type of learning.  

Cooperative learning involves students working together in small groups to learn concepts and material.  Students are usually instructed on expectations and given skill instruction that will help them work together in a cooperative manner.  There are cooperative learning models that have been developed.

• Student Teams-Achievement Divisions - Students are placed in heterogeneous groups of four.  After observing a lesson by the teacher, the groups work together to master the content.  Students individually take quizzes that are compared to previous scores, and points are awarded based on progress.  Groups with the most points earn rewards.
• Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition - Students work together in four member groups to master reading and writing skills.  Students read to one another, employ comprehension strategies, practice vocabulary, and engage in writing assignments and skills work.
• Jigsaw - Six member groups work together on a project or research on material.  Each member does a particular section of the task.  When completed, the members of all groups who worked on the same portion get together and reteach the information to the students.
• Learning Together - Groups of four or five students work together to complete one task that they turn in as a group.
• Group Investigation - Students work in groups of two to six members.  The group chooses a topic from their unit of study to report on.  The group then presents their report to the class.
• Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies - Students work in pairs and take turns teaching one another the newly learned material.
• Cooperative Scripting - Students work in pairs reviewing text that has been covered in class.  Each student takes turns summarizing the material while the other listens.

According to Froyd and Simpson (2010), "Implementation of these strategies requires more advanced preparation, but can move students toward accepting more of the responsibility for their learning and lead to the development of greater capabilities for lifelong learning."

Cooperative learning can have drawbacks including one student doing all of the work and off task behavior.  One way to address one student doing all of the work is to create the activity so that each person is held responsible for a portion.  In addition, each student can take a quiz on the information covered.  In order to maintain focus, teachers must teach and maintain consistency with expectations.  Students who refuse to work cooperatively can be given an independent assignment to complete. 

Students must be taught how to think through problems for themselves.  One way to do this is to give them engaging and interesting work.  In addition, teachers must provide timely and descriptive feedback.  Feedback helps students correct mistakes and clear up misunderstandings.

Reflection:  One of my favorite ways to teach is to have students working together in groups.  I have been amazed at the high level of thinking that many students can accomplish when given the opportunity to collaborate with peers.  Guiding and encouraging conversation creates learners who own their learning.  They take greater responsibility for their academic growth and learn more when given time to discover on their own.  This reading provided me with information that I can take to my class room.  I feel better equipped to group students and give them the freedom to make discoveries for themselves.

Resources:

Froyd, J. and Simpson, N. (2010).  Student-centered learning addressing faculty questions
     about student-centered learning.  Texas A & M University.  Retrieved from:
     http://ccliconference.org/files/2010/03/Froyd_Stu-CenteredLearning.pdf

Slavin, R. E. (2015).  Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice.  Boston, MA:

     Pearson Education.

Journal Entry 4

Description:  The reading this week in EDAT 6115 focused on effective lessons and, more specifically, direct instruction.  Direct instruction describes the type of instruction that entails providing information to students in a direct manner (Slavin, 2015).  There are particular components to direct instruction that are followed sequentially.  In addition, teachers employ two types of discussion in the class room: whole class and small group.  Each type has its advantages and each requires different preparation and participation for teachers.

Analysis:  Direct learning instruction and its components offer a framework for teaching new material to students.  Using the components in lesson planning helps teachers ensure that all aspects of the lesson are being covered.  According to Slavin (2015) the components of direct instruction include:

• state lesson objective(s)
• "Tell students what they will be learning and what...is expected of them" (Slavin, 2015).
• mentally prepare students for the lesson
• Grab the students' attention, and prepare them to learn.  Hook them into the lesson.
• review previously learned material
• Ensure that skills necessary to access the current lesson are reviewed so that students can utilize what they already know.
• present new material
• This is the meat of the lesson.  It is necessary that teachers be clear in the presentation.  Teachers will offer explanations, examples, and demonstrations.  It is important that teachers keep students engaged and maintain an appropriate pace considering the information being covered and the students in the class.
• gather feedback on student understanding
• Teachers must ensure student understanding in order to progress to another lesson.  In order to check student understanding, teachers employ various checks.  These checks can include verbal questions, written responses, short answers written on whiteboards, plickers, and many others.
• independent practice
• Students participate in independent practice in order to practice newly learned material or skills while the teacher monitors.  This step is important because students are "transferring new information in working memory to long term memory" (Slavin, 2015).
• assess and give feedback
• In order to determine whether or not students have met the lesson objectives, teachers must assess.  Assessment takes many forms, and in order for it to be most effective, teachers should provide timely feedback to student performance.
• distributed practice and review
• Sometimes called spiral review, it is important to revisit the information to ensure that students can remember the information throughout the year.  Not only are other skills built upon this information, but information learned throughout the year will be assessed on end of course tests.

Each component of direct instruction has important implications for student learning.  Skipping one of the components can hinder student progress.  Teachers must plan lessons carefully and pace themselves in order to cover all of the material. 

The way students learn concepts can be categorized in two main methods.  One is by observation, and the other is by definition.  Learning by observation has been done since birth.  Experiences increase learning by observation.  Learning by definition involves examples and non-examples that students can relate to. 

Discussion in the class room is an effective mode of learning.  Students can participate in discussion as a whole class or in small groups.  Teacher participation is less than in normal lecture type lessons.  In whole class discussions, the teacher serves as a facilitator and guides the discussion.  When students come to a stumbling block, the teacher can pose a question or statement to encourage discussion.  The teacher ensures that the conversation stays on topic.  In small group discussions, the teacher monitors each group and assists with the discussion.  In this type of discussion, the peer leader ensures that group members stay on the topic of discussion.  Student discussion, whether whole class or small group, encourages student participation and engagement.  Students are able to voice their position and add relevant information. 

Reflection:  Direct instruction is an important teaching method for introduction new material.  When teaching Biology, I like to provide direct instruction for the initial lesson.  Afterwards, I incorporate student discussion and hands on activities/labs.  I fell that the direct instruction portion of the unit provides knowledge that students need in order to adequately understand and perform the hands on portions of the unit.  Often times, I have been guilty of skipping parts of the direct instruction model in order to save time.  What I didn't realize at the time was that I was actually hindering learning by removing important aspects of the lesson.  Reading this chapter of our text has made me more cognizant of the implications of leaving out important teaching strategies that make major impacts in learning.

Resources:

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice.  Boston, MA:

     Pearson Education.

Journal Entry 3

Description:  Our focus of study this week in EDAT 6115 was on cognitive theories of learning.  We learned about how we process information and the various ways we store information.  Memory strategies can be employed to enhance retention of information.  This week's reading also provided valuable information on study and cognitive teaching strategies that address the learning needs of students.  Knowing this information helps teachers reach all students and effectively plan instruction to do so.

Analysis:  Understanding how students learn and remember is an important aspect of teaching.  Much research has been done regarding memory and information processing.  Our minds take in vast amounts of information through our sensory register.  The information that is important to us is passed on to our short term memory, or working memory (Slavin, 2015).  This information is evaluated and connections are made to possessed knowledge.  If the information is worth keeping, it is then sent to the long term memory, where it is stored.  The sensory register, short term, or working, memory, and long term memory are components of our executive functioning.  In order for information to pass from the sensory register to short term memory, we must pay attention to the information coming in; we must recognize it as being important.   For information to pass from short term to long term memory, we make connections between the new information coming in to the information we already possess.  Another way information comes to be stored in out long term memory is through rehearsal.  We think about the information repeatedly (Slavin, 2015).  This is why practice and repeated instruction is so important in the class room.  

     Ashcraft & Radvansky, Nicholls et al., and Watson & Breedlove (as cited in Slavin, 2015)state that "theorists divide long term memory into at least three parts: episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory."  Episodic memory stores memories of personal experiences; semantic memory holds factual information that we know, and procedural memory stores the information for how to do things.  Long term memory can be increased through the use of various instructional strategies.  Many times, mixing different modes of teaching strategies, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic, increases the retention rates of information. 
    
     Brain development has been researched quite deeply.  Connections made between neurons begins at birth.  Experiences and environments pay a large role in brain development (Slavin, 2015).  The brain does far more than just hold information for us.  "Findings of brain research reinforce the conclusion that the brain is not a filing cabinet for facts and skills but is engaged in a process of organizing information to make it efficiently accessible and usable" (Slavin, 2015).  Learning about brain development is important to educators.  All learners do not learn the same way, and all information is not easy to learn.  In addition, it is important that teachers understand the readiness of brains to learn information must be taken into account.  Information being taught must be developmentally appropriate. 

    

     There are many strategies that can be taught to facilitate placing information into long term memory.  Practice of taught skills, enactment, generation, verbal learning, paired associate learning, and serial and free recall are all strategies that increase ownership of the information being learned (Slavin, 2015).  Richards (2008) discusses the importance of using visual organizers and mnemonic devices in order to aid memorizing material.  In addition to teaching strategies, there are study strategies that help students commit information to memory.  These strategies include note taking, underlining and highlighting key terms and facts, summarizing, writing about the information, outlining and concept mapping, and the PQ3R Method (Slavin, 2015).

     By incorporating various memory and learning strategies in addition to study strategies in instruction, teachers will increase the chance of students remembering the information and skills being taught.  Students need the opportunity to practice new skills in order to thoroughly own the information.  Teachers need to understand how students commit information to memory in order to help them acquire the information for immediate as well as future reference.  Richards (2008) states that using various learning and memory strategies "will help enhance students' self-esteem because they will be more successful."

Reflection:  Although I have taken a course on educational psychology in the past, I really haven't placed as much emphasis on brain development as I should have in my own class room.  I do employ various memory techniques such as mnemonics.  I have also used study strategies such as note taking, summarizing, and concept mapping in order to help students practice the information being taught.  One big push in our system for next school year is the use of writing across the curriculum and summarizing.  It will be interesting to see how students respond to these strategies.  I am hopeful that they will learn the material and commit it to their long term memories in order to benefit them in the future.  Understanding how these strategies work will greatly increase the effectiveness of my instruction and in turn, increase the academic achievement of my students.

References:

Richards, R. G. (2008). Memory Strategies for Students: The Value of Strategies.
     Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/article/5736/

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Boston, MA:
     Pearson Education.

Journal Entry 2

Description: The focus of study this week in EDAT 6115 was on behavioral and social learning theories and their implications in teaching and learning.  We learned about the work of Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, and Meichenbaum.  Their research helps us understand how children learn and what we can do to help them learn what we want them to learn.

Analysis: Learning happens all of the time.  We learn without even realizing it.  Even though children are constantly learning, it is up to teachers to ensure that they learn "information, skills, and concepts that will be useful in their lives" (Slavin, 2015).  We have learned valuable information from notable researchers that has shaped the way we view and address behaviors in the class room. 
     Pavlov's theory is referred to as classical conditioning.  His research and experiments revealed that a neutral stimulus can be joined with an unconditioned stimulus and after time, the neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus.  The conditioned stimulus can then provoke responses as would an unconditioned stimulus.  Skinner focused on the correlation between behaviors and their consequences (Slavin, 2015).  He found that behaviors can be changed based on the use of consequences.  This idea is called operant conditioning.  Skinner's work "established a set of principles of behavior that have been supported in hundreds of studies" (Slavin, 2015).  Most notable is the concept that enjoyable consequences (reinforcers) increase the frequency of the behavior, while unenjoyable consequences (punishers) decrease the frequency of the behavior. 
     Another important behavioral principle is the Premack principle.  Described by David Premack, this principle promotes desired behaviors by having individuals participate in a less desirable activity followed by a preferred activity (Alberto & Troutman, 2006).  An activity that an individual participates in voluntarily can be used as the preferred activity.  This strategy is effective in getting children to participate in activities or tasks that they find difficult or uninteresting. 
    There are many reinforcers that can be used in the class room to increase positive behaviors.  Slavin (2015) lists several examples of reinforcers: "self-reinforcement, praise, attention, grades and recognition, call home, home-based reinforcement, privileges, activity reinforcers, tangible reinforcers, and food."  It is suggested to use the least tangible reinforcer that will produce the desired results.  On the other hand, there are several punishers that can be used in the class room as well.  Some effective punishers include verbal correction and "withdrawal of ... pleasant consequence[s]" such as "loss of privilege[s]," detention, and time out (Slavin, 2015). 
     In order to serve their purpose, it is important that consequences be immediate.  Providing feedback in a timely manner has a much larger impact on the behavior being addressed than would providing this feedback at a later time.  The two primary advantages to providing feedback immediately is that "it makes clear the connection between behavior and consequence" and "it increases the informational value of the feedback" (Slavin, 2015).  If feedback is given too late after the behavior, the impact simply isn't there. 
     Shaping is another behavior principle that makes a great impact on student behavior and learning.  The main idea with shaping is that individuals are reinforced for making steps towards the final goal.  This strategy guides students along as they learn within their abilities and are pushed towards more difficult tasks.  Shaping goes hand in hand with scaffolding.  Both strategies involve providing more then less guidance towards an end product or goal.
     Reinforcers can be provided with varying frequency.  The fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement describes a frequency of reinforcement based on a predetermined number of behaviors.  In the beginning, reinforcers may be provided for each behavior exhibited, but as time goes on, the number of behaviors required for a reinforcer may increase.  The variable ratio schedule of reinforcement is when reinforcers are given for an unpredictable number of behaviors.  Fixed interval schedules provide reinforcers at set increments of time.  Variable interval schedules provide reinforcers at unpredictable increments of time.  According to Alberto and Troutman (2006), a reinforcement system should be viewed as a temporary arrangement.  They further discuss the importance of schedule thinning to reduce the "dependence on artificial reinforcers" (Alberto & Troutman, 2006).  The ultimate goal is that students make positive choices for intrinsic motivation.
     Another important aspect of behavior modification is that of generalization.  We want students to be able to transfer their positive behaviors and learned skills into different settings.  In order to accomplish this, it may be necessary to teach the skills in a variety of settings or to reinforce the behaviors in various settings. 
     Social learning includes learning by observation and by self-regulation.  Bandura discussed the importance of modeling in order for students to learn.  There are four stages to observational learning: "paying attention, retaining the modeled behavior, reproducing the behavior, and being motivated to repeat the behavior" (Slavin, 2015).  Meichenbaum proposed that students can learn to self-regulate.  Self-talk and checklists are beneficial for students to learn to monitor their behavior and learning.

Reflection:  In my special education studies, I learned a great deal about behavior theories and how they impact teaching and learning.  In my experience with students, especially those with behavior disorders, I found that by being intentional and having a plan, I have been able to modify behaviors in a pretty effective manner.  We know how children learn, for the most part, and if we pay attention to what they want, we can generally come up with a plan to address their needs. 
     Most of the information in this chapter is common sense, but as teachers, we tend to overthink situations and do things the hard way first.  When attempting to increase or decrease behaviors, it is important to create a plan of action.  The worst thing a teacher can do is to go into this process blind.  If the teacher is not consistent and committed to the process, it will certainly fail.  Working with students with problem behaviors has been a challenge that I have whole heartedly accepted.  I enjoy getting to know these students and working through the puzzle to figure out why they do what they do and how I can help make a positive difference.

References:

Alberto, P. A. & Troutman, A. C. (2006). Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers, (7th Ed.).

     Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice, (11th Ed.). Boston, MA:

     Pearson Education.