Journal Entry 6

Description:  Our reading in EDAT 6115 this week focused on diverse student needs in regards to grouping and differentiating instruction to meet their needs. In addition, our text revealed programs that could be used to address the needs of at-risk students.  Finally, the effective use of technology in academics was explored giving readers insight into how various types of technology and programs can be used to enhance instruction.

Analysis:  In a single classroom of 25 students, one can easily have 25 different learning needs.  How do teachers group students in the most effective manner, taking into consideration their unique learning needs?  There are two basic forms used to group students for instruction: between-class ability grouping and within-class ability grouping. 

• Between-class ability grouping is most common in middle, junior, and high school (Slavin, 2015).  This form of grouping encompasses students taking leveled courses according to their needs.  A student may be in an upper level reading class and in a lower level math class.  These courses are assigned to students based on their learning requirements, and they are then grouped as such.  Research on between-class ability grouping revealed that there are small benefits for this type of grouping for upper level students, but for those performing at lower levels, there seems to be a “stigmatizing effect” (Slavin, 2015) of always being in the “slow” classes.  These students generally get the message that academic success is out of their reach (Oakes, 2005 as cited in Slavin, 2015).

• Within-class ability grouping often takes place in elementary schools, but could be used in the upper grades, as well.  This type of grouping is used to place students in cooperative learning groups of small teacher-led groups according to their reading level, math achievement, or writing needs.  These students stay in the same classroom for their instruction, but they are placed in groups according to their specific needs.  Research has shown in elementary settings that within-class ability grouping is beneficial to all ability levels.  The benefits include increased direct instruction from the teacher in the smaller groups and the reduction in the amount of independent seat work (Slavin, 2015).  Slavin (2015) points out that although research shows that there are benefits to within-class ability grouping, this should not be taken as it being a desirable approach to instruction; it is simply the lesser of the two evils, so to speak. 

Differentiated instruction entails “teaching that adapts the content, level, pace, and products of instruction to accommodate the different needs of diverse students in regular classes” (Slavin, 2015).  O’Brien & Guiney (2001, as cited in Logan, 2011) “clearly enumerated these as major principles of differentiated instruction: 1) Every child can learn and every teacher can learn 2) All children have the right to high quality education. 3) Progress for all will be expected, recognized, and rewarded. 4) Learners in a classroom have common needs, distinct needs, and individual needs.”  All students are expected to meet the same standards within the curriculum; however, many students possess barriers that hinder their ability to access the material as easily as others.  In differentiated instruction, teachers employ strategies to level the playing field for students requiring additional support.  Langa and Yost (2007, as cited in Logan, 2011) provide suggestions for adjusting the content, process, and products of instruction:

• Content
• select text on varied reading levels and interests
• group students according to reading level or interests
• reteach material in small groups or individually
• establish learning stations
• allow peer tutoring
• Process
• use scaffolded activities
• allow independent study
• use choice boards, cooperative learning, and/or flexible groups
• Product
• provide choices based on interests
• allow group projects
• provide timeline for turning in project in stages
• provide checklists and/or rubrics
• display examples of exemplar work

Programs available to at-risk students are widely available in schools and communities.  Examples include, but are certainly not limited to: Title I programs, early intervention programs, and after school and summer programs (Slavin, 2015).  Title I provides federal money to school to implement programs for at-risk students.  Examples of Title I programs are Head Start, migrant education, and summer programs.  Early intervention programs use various learning programs geared towards remediating students in order to prevent retention or widening of learning gaps.  There are numerous after school and summer programs available to students to help students who are behind academically.  After school programs provide homework help and additional academic support.  Summer programs, such as summer school, help prevent the loss of skills over the summer due to extended practice and instruction during the summer months.

Students are technology wizzes these days.  They are attracted to anything electronic; therefore, it would seem wise to incorporate what they love into instruction.  There are numerous ways this can be achieved even when resources are scarce.  Most students have some type of cell phone, tablet, or other wireless device.  Many schools now participate in BYOT (bring your own technology) to school.  This can be a distraction, for sure; however, if teachers play their cards right, they can use this as an advantage.  There are apps that teachers can use to check for student understanding; students simply login to the app and post answers to the questions.  Teachers can also provide study guides, videos, and interactive study materials that students can access 24/7.  In addition to cell phones, tablets, etc., teachers use computers, interactive white boards, and electronic response devices (CPS clickers).  Students can use technology to create projects and assignments.  Teachers can also use technology to track student data and determine appropriate interventions.  Some schools are migrating to online learning as most colleges are currently doing.  Students can access material, take assessments, and complete assignments while also collaborating with other students using programs such as D2L.

Reflection:  Students are very diverse learners.  It is up to teachers to determine how best to address and meet student needs in the classroom.  Grouping students according to their ability level certainly has advantages; however, it is imperative that teachers be careful not to label the same five students as the red birds and the same five students as the buzzards.  In my experience, it is helpful to have flexible groups and push students to high standards of performance. 

Differentiated instruction is something that tends to come natural to most teachers.  We often differentiate without even realizing that we are doing so.  Providing choices and taking student interests into account are ways to make effective decisions regarding adjusting instruction for diverse learners.  It is important to remember that differentiated instruction is not just for at-risk students; higher level students require differentiation as well.

In my school system, we have numerous programs available to at-risk students.  Some of the favored include the Boys and Girls Club, the YMCA’s after school program, migrant education, and summer school.  These programs are extremely beneficial not only for students’ academic progress, but also their social and emotional well-being.  Mentoring programs through the YMCA are also utilized in our system.  The mentors are invaluable for increasing student motivation and self-efficacy. 

Technology in instruction is great fun for me.  I have been to several workshops and conferences this summer that have provided me with new and fun ways to engage my students through the use of technology.  I believe that we must teach the way students learn, and if using cell phones and tablets in class to increase engagement and motivation will work, I am all in.

References: 

Logan, B. (2011).  Examining differentiated instruction: Teachers respond.  Research in  

     Higher Education Journal, 1-14.  Retrieved from:

     http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1068803.pdf

Slavin, R. E. (2015).  Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice.  Boston, MA: Pearson

     Education.

Journal Entry 5

Description:  The focus this week in EDAT 6115 was on student-centered learning and constructivist methods as they apply to learning.  In order for students to learn material and content for the long term, it is important that they are involved in their learning.  Rather than sitting through lectures where teachers basically talk to students, students in student-centered learning environments are involved in and engaged in their learning.  This idea of learning methods come from constructivist theories that draw from the work of Piaget and Vygotsky.

Analysis:  Constructivist methods of teaching places heavy emphasis on student interaction.  The reason behind this lies in the way students learn from one another.  They can talk through concepts and problems in a manner that they understand.  There are several components of the constructivist methods that are used in class rooms for student learning.  Discovery learning involves students learning "through active involvement with concepts and principles [with] teachers [encouraging] students to have experiences and conduct experiments that permit them to discover principles for themselves" (Slavin, 2015).  In order to maximize on task work time, teachers should guide students in this type of learning.  

Cooperative learning involves students working together in small groups to learn concepts and material.  Students are usually instructed on expectations and given skill instruction that will help them work together in a cooperative manner.  There are cooperative learning models that have been developed.

• Student Teams-Achievement Divisions - Students are placed in heterogeneous groups of four.  After observing a lesson by the teacher, the groups work together to master the content.  Students individually take quizzes that are compared to previous scores, and points are awarded based on progress.  Groups with the most points earn rewards.
• Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition - Students work together in four member groups to master reading and writing skills.  Students read to one another, employ comprehension strategies, practice vocabulary, and engage in writing assignments and skills work.
• Jigsaw - Six member groups work together on a project or research on material.  Each member does a particular section of the task.  When completed, the members of all groups who worked on the same portion get together and reteach the information to the students.
• Learning Together - Groups of four or five students work together to complete one task that they turn in as a group.
• Group Investigation - Students work in groups of two to six members.  The group chooses a topic from their unit of study to report on.  The group then presents their report to the class.
• Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies - Students work in pairs and take turns teaching one another the newly learned material.
• Cooperative Scripting - Students work in pairs reviewing text that has been covered in class.  Each student takes turns summarizing the material while the other listens.

According to Froyd and Simpson (2010), "Implementation of these strategies requires more advanced preparation, but can move students toward accepting more of the responsibility for their learning and lead to the development of greater capabilities for lifelong learning."

Cooperative learning can have drawbacks including one student doing all of the work and off task behavior.  One way to address one student doing all of the work is to create the activity so that each person is held responsible for a portion.  In addition, each student can take a quiz on the information covered.  In order to maintain focus, teachers must teach and maintain consistency with expectations.  Students who refuse to work cooperatively can be given an independent assignment to complete. 

Students must be taught how to think through problems for themselves.  One way to do this is to give them engaging and interesting work.  In addition, teachers must provide timely and descriptive feedback.  Feedback helps students correct mistakes and clear up misunderstandings.

Reflection:  One of my favorite ways to teach is to have students working together in groups.  I have been amazed at the high level of thinking that many students can accomplish when given the opportunity to collaborate with peers.  Guiding and encouraging conversation creates learners who own their learning.  They take greater responsibility for their academic growth and learn more when given time to discover on their own.  This reading provided me with information that I can take to my class room.  I feel better equipped to group students and give them the freedom to make discoveries for themselves.

Resources:

Froyd, J. and Simpson, N. (2010).  Student-centered learning addressing faculty questions
     about student-centered learning.  Texas A & M University.  Retrieved from:
     http://ccliconference.org/files/2010/03/Froyd_Stu-CenteredLearning.pdf

Slavin, R. E. (2015).  Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice.  Boston, MA:

     Pearson Education.

Journal Entry 4

Description:  The reading this week in EDAT 6115 focused on effective lessons and, more specifically, direct instruction.  Direct instruction describes the type of instruction that entails providing information to students in a direct manner (Slavin, 2015).  There are particular components to direct instruction that are followed sequentially.  In addition, teachers employ two types of discussion in the class room: whole class and small group.  Each type has its advantages and each requires different preparation and participation for teachers.

Analysis:  Direct learning instruction and its components offer a framework for teaching new material to students.  Using the components in lesson planning helps teachers ensure that all aspects of the lesson are being covered.  According to Slavin (2015) the components of direct instruction include:

• state lesson objective(s)
• "Tell students what they will be learning and what...is expected of them" (Slavin, 2015).
• mentally prepare students for the lesson
• Grab the students' attention, and prepare them to learn.  Hook them into the lesson.
• review previously learned material
• Ensure that skills necessary to access the current lesson are reviewed so that students can utilize what they already know.
• present new material
• This is the meat of the lesson.  It is necessary that teachers be clear in the presentation.  Teachers will offer explanations, examples, and demonstrations.  It is important that teachers keep students engaged and maintain an appropriate pace considering the information being covered and the students in the class.
• gather feedback on student understanding
• Teachers must ensure student understanding in order to progress to another lesson.  In order to check student understanding, teachers employ various checks.  These checks can include verbal questions, written responses, short answers written on whiteboards, plickers, and many others.
• independent practice
• Students participate in independent practice in order to practice newly learned material or skills while the teacher monitors.  This step is important because students are "transferring new information in working memory to long term memory" (Slavin, 2015).
• assess and give feedback
• In order to determine whether or not students have met the lesson objectives, teachers must assess.  Assessment takes many forms, and in order for it to be most effective, teachers should provide timely feedback to student performance.
• distributed practice and review
• Sometimes called spiral review, it is important to revisit the information to ensure that students can remember the information throughout the year.  Not only are other skills built upon this information, but information learned throughout the year will be assessed on end of course tests.

Each component of direct instruction has important implications for student learning.  Skipping one of the components can hinder student progress.  Teachers must plan lessons carefully and pace themselves in order to cover all of the material. 

The way students learn concepts can be categorized in two main methods.  One is by observation, and the other is by definition.  Learning by observation has been done since birth.  Experiences increase learning by observation.  Learning by definition involves examples and non-examples that students can relate to. 

Discussion in the class room is an effective mode of learning.  Students can participate in discussion as a whole class or in small groups.  Teacher participation is less than in normal lecture type lessons.  In whole class discussions, the teacher serves as a facilitator and guides the discussion.  When students come to a stumbling block, the teacher can pose a question or statement to encourage discussion.  The teacher ensures that the conversation stays on topic.  In small group discussions, the teacher monitors each group and assists with the discussion.  In this type of discussion, the peer leader ensures that group members stay on the topic of discussion.  Student discussion, whether whole class or small group, encourages student participation and engagement.  Students are able to voice their position and add relevant information. 

Reflection:  Direct instruction is an important teaching method for introduction new material.  When teaching Biology, I like to provide direct instruction for the initial lesson.  Afterwards, I incorporate student discussion and hands on activities/labs.  I fell that the direct instruction portion of the unit provides knowledge that students need in order to adequately understand and perform the hands on portions of the unit.  Often times, I have been guilty of skipping parts of the direct instruction model in order to save time.  What I didn't realize at the time was that I was actually hindering learning by removing important aspects of the lesson.  Reading this chapter of our text has made me more cognizant of the implications of leaving out important teaching strategies that make major impacts in learning.

Resources:

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice.  Boston, MA:

     Pearson Education.

Journal Entry 3

Description:  Our focus of study this week in EDAT 6115 was on cognitive theories of learning.  We learned about how we process information and the various ways we store information.  Memory strategies can be employed to enhance retention of information.  This week's reading also provided valuable information on study and cognitive teaching strategies that address the learning needs of students.  Knowing this information helps teachers reach all students and effectively plan instruction to do so.

Analysis:  Understanding how students learn and remember is an important aspect of teaching.  Much research has been done regarding memory and information processing.  Our minds take in vast amounts of information through our sensory register.  The information that is important to us is passed on to our short term memory, or working memory (Slavin, 2015).  This information is evaluated and connections are made to possessed knowledge.  If the information is worth keeping, it is then sent to the long term memory, where it is stored.  The sensory register, short term, or working, memory, and long term memory are components of our executive functioning.  In order for information to pass from the sensory register to short term memory, we must pay attention to the information coming in; we must recognize it as being important.   For information to pass from short term to long term memory, we make connections between the new information coming in to the information we already possess.  Another way information comes to be stored in out long term memory is through rehearsal.  We think about the information repeatedly (Slavin, 2015).  This is why practice and repeated instruction is so important in the class room.  

     Ashcraft & Radvansky, Nicholls et al., and Watson & Breedlove (as cited in Slavin, 2015)state that "theorists divide long term memory into at least three parts: episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory."  Episodic memory stores memories of personal experiences; semantic memory holds factual information that we know, and procedural memory stores the information for how to do things.  Long term memory can be increased through the use of various instructional strategies.  Many times, mixing different modes of teaching strategies, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic, increases the retention rates of information. 
    
     Brain development has been researched quite deeply.  Connections made between neurons begins at birth.  Experiences and environments pay a large role in brain development (Slavin, 2015).  The brain does far more than just hold information for us.  "Findings of brain research reinforce the conclusion that the brain is not a filing cabinet for facts and skills but is engaged in a process of organizing information to make it efficiently accessible and usable" (Slavin, 2015).  Learning about brain development is important to educators.  All learners do not learn the same way, and all information is not easy to learn.  In addition, it is important that teachers understand the readiness of brains to learn information must be taken into account.  Information being taught must be developmentally appropriate. 

    

     There are many strategies that can be taught to facilitate placing information into long term memory.  Practice of taught skills, enactment, generation, verbal learning, paired associate learning, and serial and free recall are all strategies that increase ownership of the information being learned (Slavin, 2015).  Richards (2008) discusses the importance of using visual organizers and mnemonic devices in order to aid memorizing material.  In addition to teaching strategies, there are study strategies that help students commit information to memory.  These strategies include note taking, underlining and highlighting key terms and facts, summarizing, writing about the information, outlining and concept mapping, and the PQ3R Method (Slavin, 2015).

     By incorporating various memory and learning strategies in addition to study strategies in instruction, teachers will increase the chance of students remembering the information and skills being taught.  Students need the opportunity to practice new skills in order to thoroughly own the information.  Teachers need to understand how students commit information to memory in order to help them acquire the information for immediate as well as future reference.  Richards (2008) states that using various learning and memory strategies "will help enhance students' self-esteem because they will be more successful."

Reflection:  Although I have taken a course on educational psychology in the past, I really haven't placed as much emphasis on brain development as I should have in my own class room.  I do employ various memory techniques such as mnemonics.  I have also used study strategies such as note taking, summarizing, and concept mapping in order to help students practice the information being taught.  One big push in our system for next school year is the use of writing across the curriculum and summarizing.  It will be interesting to see how students respond to these strategies.  I am hopeful that they will learn the material and commit it to their long term memories in order to benefit them in the future.  Understanding how these strategies work will greatly increase the effectiveness of my instruction and in turn, increase the academic achievement of my students.

References:

Richards, R. G. (2008). Memory Strategies for Students: The Value of Strategies.
     Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/article/5736/

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Boston, MA:
     Pearson Education.