Journal Entry 8

Description:  The topic of study this week in EDAT 6115 was “Assessing Student Learning” (Slavin, 2015). We looked at instructional objectives, the importance of evaluation, various types of evaluation, test questions, and methods for grading. The focus was on using this information to increase the effectiveness of teachers’ lessons and to increase learning for students.

Analysis:  There is no way to understand where a student in his/her acquisition of knowledge without assessment. Teachers must use some type of assessment in order to gauge a student’s growth as well as the effectiveness of his/her teaching. Assessments come in many forms and can be formal or informal.

Instructional objectives are “statements of skills or concepts that students are expected to know at the end of some period of instruction” (Slavin, 2015).  They must match the assessments that will be given as well as aligned to state standards. Instructional objectives should be both clear and measurable. They contain three main components: performance, conditions, and criteria. The performance component specifies what the learner is expected to do. The objective describes the conditions under which the student will perform. The criterion defines the performance level required to meet the objective. Teachers plan their lessons around instructional objectives so that students will meet the objectives.

Backwards planning is one way that teachers can write objectives to ensure that all standards are being covered. Teachers first write broad, long term objectives; they then break down those objectives into smaller, more specific objectives. When writing objectives, teachers should be aware of the verbiage used. Different skills, levels of understanding, and purposes should also be taken into consideration. One way this can be accomplished is through the use of a taxonomy, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge. These taxonomies “[categorize] tasks according to the complexity of thinking required to successfully complete them” (Aungst, 2014). It is imperative that teachers plan instructional objectives in advance as they communicate to students what they will be expected to do; therefore, the objectives must be accurate, and teachers must be fully prepared to instruct students towards mastery of the objectives.

Evaluations are valuable aspects of teaching and learning. Waugh and Gronlund (2013) as cited by Slavin (2015) list six key purposes of evaluations:

1.      “Feedback to students

2.      Feedback to teachers

3.      Information to parents

4.      Information for selection and certification

5.      Information for accountability

6.      Incentives to increase student effort”

Feedback is a necessary part of education, and it is imperative that it be timely. Teachers and students “need to know as soon as possible whether their investments of time and energy in a given activity are paying off in increased learning” (Slavin, 2015). When students are provided specific feedback on their strengths and weaknesses, they are more likely to increase their efforts towards success. Teachers require feedback in order to analyze the effectiveness of their instruction. Using feedback, teachers can adjust their teaching by incorporating different strategies or, perhaps, slowing down a bit, and thereby, increasing student engagement and learning.

Evaluation provides valuable information to many involved in education. Parents are able to stay up to date on their student’s academic progress or lack thereof. Parents can use this information to reinforce student attendance, study habits, and requesting additional help when needed. Evaluation results are used in the selection of students for particular programs such as gifted services, special education services, or program of study tracks. In addition, these results can be used to provide certification from a program of study or access to a particular program of study. Accountability is a major factor in education. States use evaluation results to make decisions regarding teachers’, administrations’, and districts’ effectiveness in educating students. Lastly, according to the list of evaluations’ purposes is that of providing information for incentives. Results, also referred to as grades, provides a means of motivating students to perform to the best of their abilities. Often, awards and prizes are given to students performing well or exhibiting growth as revealed by their evaluation results. Long term incentives, such as getting into preferred colleges, the military, or work-based learning programs are of value to students as well.

Various types of evaluations are in use by teachers and districts to reveal information regarding student learning and teacher instruction. The major categories are formative and summative assessments and norm and criterion referenced assessments. Each of these assessments are used for particular purposes. Formative assessments are basically used to see how students are doing within a unit of study. Teachers use this data to adjust his/her instruction or to provide additional instruction to students requiring intervention. Summative assessments are primarily used to determine how well students did at the end of a particular unit of study. The data is used to make comparisons between students. Norm referenced and criterion referenced assessments are differentiated based on the interpretation of student scores. Norm referenced assessments focus primarily on comparing student scores across a district, state, or the nation. Criterion referenced assessments focus primarily on “students’ mastery of specific skills, regardless of how other students did on the same skills” (Slavin, 2015). To make a connection between these types of assessments, Slavin (2015) states that “formative evaluation is almost always norm referenced [while] summative testing…can be either criterion referenced or norm referenced.” The difference simply lies in the use of the scores.

Some teachers use alternative forms of assessment that are different from the traditional paper and pencil tests. Portfolio and performance assessments allow students to show what they know “through work samples or direct real-world applications” (Slavin, 2015). Performance assessments require students to apply the concepts and knowledge that they have learned and utilize higher level thinking skills (Hilliard, 2015). Some might argue that these types of assessments are more indicative of a student’s learning than traditional assessments.

Methods of grading are quite different depending upon the grade level being taught. In early elementary, some districts use standards based grading with meets, progressing, or not demonstrating as the “grade” given. As students progress through grades, they begin earning numerical grades or letter grades. In order to determine a grade that will be placed on report cards, teachers average scores earned on assignments and assessments. Generally, assignments and assessments are weighted differently.  The calculated grades are reported on report cards or progress reports that are provided to parents.

Reflection: It would be a difficult task to determine how students are progressing through the curriculum without evaluations. When I taught kindergarten, many of the assessments that I performed were informal and based on observations and student performance. As a ninth grade Biology teacher, I will approach assessment in a somewhat different manner. I found the explanations of different types of evaluations in our text to be very useful to me. As a matter of fact, I will be working for the next three days with the Biology department to revamp our assessments in order to increase the rigor. This is being done to better prepare our students for the Milestones EOC. I will be able to use the information from this week’s reading as I work with my colleagues this week. Understanding how assessments should be written will help me prepare more effective assessments that will provide an accurate picture of student achievement.

References:

Aungst, G. (2014). Using Webb's depth of knowledge to increase rigor. Retrieved from:

     http://www.edutopia.org/blog/webbs-depth-knowledge-increase-rigor-gerald-aungst

Hilliard, P. (2015). Performance-based assessment: Reviewing the basics. Retrieved from:

     http://www.edutopia.org/blog/performance-based-assessment-reviewing-basics-patricia

     hilliard

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Boston, MA: Pearson

     Education.

Journal Entry 7

Description:  The focus of our reading this week in EDAT 6115 was effective learning environments.  We looked into what an effective learning environment encompasses.  Teachers plan and employ various strategies to maintain an environment where learning is maximized for all students.  Managing time and behavior are two important aspects of creating an effective learning environment.  We discovered strategies that can be used to manage behavior without jeopardizing learning in the classroom.

Analysis:  According to Slavin (2015), the major characteristics of an effective learning environment include "preventing and responding to misbehavior..., using class time well, creating an atmosphere that is conducive to interest and inquiry, and permitting activities that engage students' minds and imaginations."  Horner, Sugai, and Dickey (n.d.) list 12 practices for creating an effective classroom:

1. Expectations: Invest in appropriate behavior
2. Establish, teach & maintain routines: Build a predictable environment
3. Engage in active supervision.
4. Establish a positive environment.
5. Design a functional physical layout for the classroom.
6. Maximize academic engagement time.
7. Promote academic success: Match curriculum to student skills
8. Instruction influences behavior
9. Establish an effective hierarchy of consequences for problem behavior.
10. Vary modes of instruction.
11. Teacher has system to request assistance
12. Role of school-wide behavior teams (PBIS Teams): Teams (PBIS Teams): Ensure teachers have a plan

Teachers should begin the year by explaining classroom rules and procedures explicitly (Horner et al., n.d.).  Expectations should be made clear to the students, and teachers should establish an atmosphere of care and support (Slavin, 2015).  Teachers need to review rules and procedures often during the beginning of the year and when new situations arise.  Consistent and immediate responses to misbehavior will send the message that such behavior is not welcome nor will it be tolerated.  By doing this early on, classroom management should be much more effective.

Establishing and setting classroom rules are tasks that should not be taken lightly.  In addition to following the school rules, individual classes will have specific rules that students will adhere to.  Rules and procedures are in place to prevent misbehavior and to ensure the safety of students; however, teachers must also have a set of strategies that will be used to address problems as they arise.

The time that students spend on task and engaged contribute the most to student learning (Slavin, 2015).  It is imperative that teachers work to reduce situations which rob students of learning.  Some examples of events that take time from learning include, but certainly are not limited to, tardies, sharpening pencils, leaving class to go to the restroom, playing/socializing, gathering materials, and transitions.  There are strategies that can be put in place to prevent time lost due to events such as these.  Teachers should begin class on time each day and teach until the end of class.  This practice relays the message to the students that class time is valuable and used for learning.  Some interruptions are unavoidable, but it is important that teachers plan to avoid interruptions.  This can be accomplished by establishing early on the rules and procedures for the class.  Students will need to be reminded and modeled for in order for the rules and procedures to become habit, therefore, it is important that teachers maintain consistency with this process.  Another method that increases time spent learning is a rapid pace of instruction.  Teachers should plan for smooth transitions and reduce down time by being organized and having all materials in place prior to class.  Employing these strategies should reduce the amount of time that the teacher must spend on discipline. 

Maximizing engaged time can be accomplished by teaching lessons that are interesting.  Another way to increase engaged learning time is to reduce the amount of independent seatwork that students are required to do.  Instead, use direct teaching, cooperative learning groups, and encourage active participation in lessons by making lessons interactive in nature.  Additionally, it is important that transitions be managed.  This is an area where a great amount of time can be wasted if the procedures have not been explicitly outlined for the students.  Keeping the group focused on the lesson is another way to ensure that time is used wisely.  A way to do this is to use all student responses.  Students can answer chorally, use whiteboards, answer using CPS clickers, response cards, or strategies such as turn and talk.  Another way to ensure that all students are focused on the lesson is to ask the question prior to calling on a student to answer.  This strategy has all students paying attention to the question not knowing who will be called on.  When seatwork is used, it is an effective strategy for teachers to circulate and monitor students.  This gives students the opportunity to ask for help and reminds them that the teacher is monitoring them.  Effective classroom managers are able to redirect behavior without losing instruction time.  This can be done by giving nonverbal cues, standing near particular students, or simply walking by and pointing to the student's paper or task.

When employing strategies and interventions for misbehavior, it is best practice to use the simplest intervention to address the misbehavior (Slavin, 2015).  The following chart describes the progression of intervention uses.

Principle of Least Intervention
Step	Procedure	Example
1	Prevention	Teacher displays enthusiasm, varies activities, keeps students interested.
2	Nonverbal cues	Tanya turns in paper late; teacher frowns.
3	Praise of correct behavior that is incompatible with misbehavior	“Tanya, I hear you completed your science fair project on time for the judging. That’s great!”
4	Praise for other students	“I see most of you turned your papers in on time today. I really appreciate that.”
5	Verbal reminders	“Tanya, please turn in your next paper on time.”
6	Repeated reminders	“Tanya, it’s important that you turn your paper in on time.”
7	Consequences	Tanya spends 10 minutes after class starting on the next paper assignment.

Slavin, 2015

Applied behavior analysis is used to analyze the misbehaviors in the classroom that are not improved through the use of preventative measures.  The analysis reveals the function of the behavior and what the reinforcer may be.  Functions and reinforcers include gaining attention, either the teacher's or peer's attention or the release or avoidance of an unpreferred activity or situation.  Once the teacher identifies the reinforcers that are contributing to misbehavior, they are able to determine replacement reinforcers or punishers, if necessary.  Once the behavior has improved, the frequency of the reinforcers can be reduced resulting in long term maintenance of the new behaviors and generalization across settings (Slavin, 2015).

Serious behavior problems can be addressed through several methods.  First, teachers strive to prevent misbehavior through the use of establishing an effective learning environment and applying preventative strategies.  Teachers also observe students and communicate with them to determine the root of the misbehavior.  Once this is established, teachers can employ strategies to correct the misbehavior.  Establishing clear expectations and consistently enforcing rules and procedures will help the class run more effectively, thus reducing the instances of misbehavior.  Increasing the attendance of students will also reduce the amount of misbehavior.  Students who are at school are less likely to be out and about getting into trouble (Slavin, 2015).  Additionally, enlisting the help of parents/guardians will create a united front and increase the likelihood that trouble behaviors will be eliminated. 

Reflection:  I always thought that I created an effective learning environment; however, the reading this week has me questioning my effectiveness.   I studied many behavior interventions and strategies as well as applied behavior analysis in my special education course work for my bachelor's degree.  This information helped me manage classroom behavior fairly effectively, however, an area that I feel I struggle with is engaged time and time on task for students.  This is an area that I can address by employing strategies learned in this course as well as increasing the effectiveness of my planning.  Reducing down time and having all materials gathered in advance will help maintain group focus as I teach, monitor, and observe my students.  According to Slavin (2015), setting expectations, rules, and procedures early on will increase the effectiveness of the learning environment.

References:

Horner, R., Sugai, G., & Dickey, C. (n.d.). 12 Steps to Building Effective Classroom
     Management. Retrieved from http://et.nwresd.org/node/135

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Boston, MA:
     Pearson Education.